Both studies — the Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek) Regional Emission Inventory and the PM2.5 Source Apportionment in Jakarta — were conducted by a research team from the Air and Waste Management Research Group (KK PUL) at ITB’s Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering (FTSL), led by Puji Lestari with the support of the Visi Indonesia Raya Emisi Nol Bersih (ViriyaENB) Foundation.

Air quality dispersion modeling in the studies reveals the potential for cross-regional contributions to PM2.5 concentrations in Jakarta. In a scenario where emissions from Jakarta are assumed to be zero, sources from surrounding areas (Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi) are still estimated to contribute 38.51 percent to PM2.5 concentrations in Jakarta.

Analysis of PM2.5 samples collected in Jakarta from February to December 2025 showed an average PM2.5 concentration of 34.1 μg/m³ over the monitoring period. This figure far exceeds the annual PM2.5 standard set by Government Regulation No. 22/2021 on the Implementation of Environmental Protection and Management  of 15 μg/m³ and the United States-EPA standard of 9 μg/m³, and is approximately 6.8 times the World Health Organization's annual guideline value of 5 µg/m³.

The studies also indicate that air pollution source profiles in the Greater Jakarta area vary by region. Transportation is the dominant source in Jakarta and several satellite cities; industry is dominant in Bogor regency and Tangerang city; while power plants are the dominant source in Bekasi and Tangerang.

Within Jakarta's transportation sector, emission sources also differ by vehicle type, with diesel vehicles accounting for the highest PM2.5 emissions. Trucks contribute 34.96 percent of PM2.5 emissions, followed by diesel passenger cars at 21.21 percent.

These findings underscore the necessity of cross-regional and cross-sectoral air pollution control as a foundation for improving air quality in the Greater Jakarta area—Indonesia’s largest metropolitan region and one of the largest globally—and particularly in Jakarta, which aims to rank among the world’s top 20 cities by 2045.

“When emission sources are located in one area yet their impact is measurable in another, the policy response must also transcend administrative boundaries. The region needs to be increasingly managed under an integrated air quality policy framework,” Puji said.

Urgent corrective action is also imperative given the profound impact on public health and the economy.

ViriyaENB executive director Suzanty Sitorus said the studies have provided a clearer map of pollution sources and control priorities. The next step, she continues, is to translate that map into measurable emission reduction targets, a division of responsibilities across regions and sectors and mechanisms to track progress.

“Greater Jakarta needs a unified, cross-regional air quality strategy framework that is both monitorable and accountable,” she said.

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